How Peer Review Works in the Social Sciences

Peer review, at least in intent, is the way the editors of academic journals attempt to keep the quality of articles in their publications high, and assure (or attempt to assure) that poor or fallacious research does not get published. The process is tied up with political and economic issues involving tenure and pay scales, in that an academic who participates in the peer review process (whether as author, editor, or reviewer) gets rewarded for that participation in an increase in reputation which can lead to an increase in pay scales, rather than direct payment for services rendered. In other words, none of the people involved in the review process is paid by the journal in question, with the sole exception (maybe) of one or more editorial assistants. The author, editor, and reviewers all do this for the prestige involved in the process; they are generally paid by the university or business that employs them, and in many cases, that pay is contingent upon obtaining publication in peer-reviewed journals. The editorial assistance is generally provided in part by the editors university and in part by the journal. The Review Process The way academic peer review works (at least in the social sciences), is that a scholar writes an article and submits it to a journal for review. The editor reads it over and finds between three and seven other scholars to review it. The reviewers selected to read and comment on the scholars article are chosen by the editor based on their reputations in the specific field of the article, or whether they are mentioned in the bibliography, or if they are personally known to the editor. Sometimes the author of a manuscript suggests some reviewers. Once a list of reviewers is drawn up, the editor removes the name of the author from the manuscript and forwards a copy to the chosen stout hearts. Then time passes, a lot of time, generally, between two weeks and several months. When the reviewers have all returned their comments (made directly on the manuscript or in a separate document), the editor makes a preliminary decision about the manuscript. Is it to be accepted as is? (This is very rare.) Is it to be accepted with modifications? (This is typical.) Is it to be rejected? (This last cases is also fairly rare, depending on the journal.) The editor strips out the identity of the reviewers and sends along the comments and her preliminary decision about the manuscript to the author. If the manuscript was accepted with modifications, it is then up to the author to make changes until the editor is satisfied that the reviewers reservations are met. Eventually, after several rounds of back and forth, the manuscript is published. The period from submission of a manuscript to publication in an academic journal generally takes anywhere from six months to over a year. Problems with Peer Review Problems inherent in the system include the time sink between submission and publication, and the difficulty obtaining reviewers who have the time and inclination to give thoughtful, constructive reviews. Petty jealousies and full blown political differences of opinion are difficult to restrain in a process where no one is made accountable for a specific set of comments on a particular manuscript, and where the author has no ability to correspond directly with her reviewers. However, it must be said that many argue that the anonymity of the blind review process allows a reviewer to freely state what he or she believes about a particular paper without fear of reprisal. The burgeoning of the internet in the first decade of the 21st century has made a huge difference in the way articles are published and made available: the peer review system is often problematic in these journals, for a number of reasons. Open access publishing--in which free draft or completed articles are published and made available to anyone--is a wonderful experiment that has had some hitches in getting started. In a 2013 paper in Science, John Bohannen described how he submitted 304 versions of a paper on a bogus wonder drug to open-access journals, over half of which were accepted. Recent Findings In 2001, the journal Behavioral Ecology changed its peer review system from one which identified the author to reviewers (but reviewers remained anonymous) to a completely blind one, in which both author and reviewers are anonymous to one another. In a 2008 paper, Amber Budden and colleagues reported that statistics comparing the articles accepted for publication before and after 2001 indicated that significantly more women have been published in BE since the double-blind process began. Similar ecological journals using single-blind reviews over the same period do not indicate a similar growth in the number of woman-authored articles, leading researchers to believe that the process of double-blind review might assist with the glass ceiling effect. Sources Bohannon J. 2013. Whos afraid of peer review? Science 342:60-65. Budden AE, Tregenza T, Aarssen LW, Koricheva J, Leimu R, and Lortie CJ. 2008. Double-blind review favours increased representation of female authors. Trends in Ecology Evolution 23(1):4-6. Carver M. 2007. Archaeology journals, academics and open access. European Journal of Archaeology 10(2–3):135–148. Chilidis K. 2008. New knowledge versus consensus – a critical note on their relationship based on the debate concerning the use of barrel-vaults in Macedonian tombs. European Journal of Archaeology 11(1):75–103. Etkin A. 2014. A New Method and Metric to Evaluate the Peer Review Process of Scholarly Journals. Publishing Research Quarterly 30(1):23-38. Gould THP. 2012. The Future of Peer Review: Four Possible Options to Nothingness. Publishing Research Quarterly 28(4):285-293. Vanlandingham SL. 2009. Extraordinary Examples of Deception in Peer Reviewing: Concoction of the Dorenberg Skull Hoax and Related Misconduct. 13th World Multi-Conference on Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics: International Symposium on Peer Reviewing. Orlando, Florida. Vesnic-Alujevic L. 2014. Peer Review and Scientific Publishing in Times of Web 2.0. Publishing Research Quarterly 30(1):39-49. Weiss B. 2014. Opening Access: Publics, Publication, and a Path to Inclusion. Cultural Anthropology 29(1):1-2.

With Reference to Research Evidence (Theories and...

Behaviorist theories of learning see all animals as a blank slate at birth, with learning takng place as a result of making an association between events and their environment. There are two forms of associative learning, classical conditioning, which is associative learning before an event, which takes the form of a reflexive response to it, and operant conditioning, which is associated learning after an event, due to its’ consequences. This essay will look at theories behind classical conditioning and their use in the treatment of phobias and addiction. Classical conditioning was discovered through for the work of the 20th century Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who was conducting Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While†¦show more content†¦This counter conditioning is the basis for successful behavioral techniques used in the treatment for anxiety, phobias, and compulsive rituals based on classical conditioning. All of its strategies are ways of eliminating or extinguishing an undesired response. This is accomplished by creating conditions in which the response will not occur, and then persuading patients to expose themselves to situations that normally provoke the response. Systematic desensitization was developed by Wolpe in the 1950s using the principles of classical conditioning.. Its aim is to extinguish a learned response of fear by associating the stimulus that causes the fear with a second response that is incompatible with fear; the term reciprocal inhibition refers to the fact that each response in inhibits the other.. Patients are desensitized by repeated confrontation of the feared object while they are in a state of physical relaxation (the incompatible response). They are trained to make themselves comfortable by muscle relaxation exercises or through hypnosis and then presented with a series or hierarchy of situations graded in advance from least to most frightening. 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Development of Large Set Woolworths Limited †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Development of Large Set Woolworths Limited. Answer: Introduction This report depicts the importance of developing Information System for a business organization called Woolworths Limited. Information systems will help the company to gain competitive advantages and measurable structural revenue. With the incrimination of technologies, the chances of error occurrence are also increasing. These errors are strictly needed to be mitigated. To resolve these issues, it has become necessary for the business organization to implement an Information System for large a set of data management. Woolworths Limited is serving different operational excellence to their consumers. Operational excellence has been able to enhance the number of consumers. With the increase of employee information and consumer details, the process of information management is becoming complex. To access the consumer details, data authentication is important. Due to inadequate management approaches, the company was facing many issues. Based on the requirement of the project, proper time and project schedule is developed in this report. The tools and techniques that are needed for demonstrating the project details are also elaborated in this report. Woolworths Limited is one of the major Australian retail companies which serve their business operation throughout Australia and New Zealand. It is a public type company that was founded in the year of 1924, headquartered in Belle Vista, New South Wales, Australia. The business is willing to build an integrated service experience for their consumers. Woolworths Group has more than 3,000 stores which hire more than 205,000 employees for serving more than 29 Million of consumers. The main aim of Woolworths Limited is to serve the best quality, high level user-friendly service to the consumers with proper customer values. Woolworths is a trusted brand which is partnered with thousands of manufacturers and farmers. The goal of the company is to give the consumers highest level priority. It helps to build good relation with the customers and maintain the cultural norms of the company. In addition to this, it helps to generate sustainable sales momentum in their food delivery service. With their end processes and system excellence, it has become one of the lean retailers of Australia. For providing the most measurable values to the stakeholders, the company is willing to empower their business regarding pursuing different high level strategies. The company resolves to deliver hard work and integrity. The business outline of the company is completely focused towards their consumers and their requirements. Three leading ideas of the company are illustrated below: The freedom to share the point of view of all the project team members and the project manager To develop project brand values To deliver sustainable business frame and project outlines to the consumers Outline of the project objective The objectives set for this particular project are as follows: To develop a team with low cost and improve the processes To develop cohesive brand by updated and advanced product offerings To implement an Information system for enhancing the supermarket loyalty program Operational excellence: To gain higher level business profitability the company should improve their operational efficiency. For satisfying the consumers, the company should store available stock of products so that they could get the desired products on expected time regardless of their location. Improved product service and business models: To develop new products and services, Information System needs to be adopted by the company. New business models will enhance the features of the products and help the customers to get useful information about the products and items. Customer relationship management: The Customer Relationship Management (CRM) system is a type of information system that helps in increasing the revenue of the business organization. Organizations will be able to enhance its operational efficiency by adopting and implementing CRM. Improvement in decision making: While making a proper decision for any business organization it is necessary to use real time data. It would consume less time. To gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace, proper business models and a strategic outline is needed to be developed by the company. Security: Security is an important aspect that is needed to be developed by any business organization. If cloud based ERP system is implemented by the company, then the IS would be able to provide three different components such as disaster recovery, application resilience and information backup. In case of data management, if any information is lost from the server then with the help of proper security policy, unauthorized users would not be able to access the information without permission. Sustainable survival: To deliver sustainable business outcome to the consumers, it is important to store up-to-date business survival plan. It would help the project team members to make the job responsibilities easier. Detail overview and analysis of the use of relevant project management concept, tools and techniques for demonstrating knowledge The traditional information management system lacks many features that might affect the organisational revenue model and organizational structure. In case of manual information management, the employees have to access information manually. This is not a feasible process. Therefore, it is beneficial for Woolworths Limited to develop an automated system which would reduce the rate of human error and will also improve the business processes. Different project management tools and technologies are used by the companies to deliver service and products as per the requirement of the consumers. To meet the requirements of the consumers, proper tools and project management technologies are needed to be adopted by the management authority. It would help the project manager to gain effective project revenues and competitive advantages. From the analytical diagnosis of Information System (IS) which is going to be developed for Woolworths Limited, it is necessary for the company to adopt proper tools and technologies. For the adoption of cloud based Information System (IS), it is necessary for the company to divide the workload among the project team members. It would help the project associates to earn competitive advantages and measurable revenue value from the market. The tools associated with this project are discussed below. Project management is referred to as one of the most complex and challenging tasks that assist the project manager to accomplish the task within estimated time and budget. Based on the project style, the project manager should select the most suitable project management tool for their business organization. Some of the companies need supporting software whereas some other companies require manual software. For this particular project, the two most suitable tools that are used are the Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) chart and Gantt chart. For the available project management software, these project management tools could be produced either annually or commercially. PERT chart can be defined as a control and planning tool. Again interchangeably both of these tools could be used by the project managers. PERT chart: Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) helps to improve and revise the project planning and activity scheduling approach. The required resources for the evaluation of the project are also forecasted with the help of PERT chart. To simplify the project processes, repetitive planning pattern must be used accordingly. For reflecting the dependencies of the inter-projects and the limitation with project resources, the project activities could be rescheduled with the help of the PERT chart application. Profitability could be gained after the completion of the project; project completion time and specified date also become available with the usage of PERT chart as a tool. Gantt chart: Gantt chart is a tool that can be used to display the calendar time task assignment in days, weeks or months. To show the project commencement and completion details, a graphical representation can be shown with the help of the Gantt chart. Schedule time and activity tasks can be visually and graphically represented with the help of Gantt chart. The what if scenario is also developed easily with this tool and it promotes a clean and clear communication approach to the project managers and project team members. An accurate comparison between the planned schedule and project progress can be done. In addition to this, for determining the risks associated with the project and resource allocation, a comparison between multiple projects can be done with the project management approach. Gantt chart can be considered to be a negotiation tool. Project management Technologies Project management technologies help the project manager to improve the performance of the existing stakeholder and each project team members. After analysing the needs of Woolworths Limited, the technologies, processes and skills that are selected are as follows: Data backup and information redundancy: The most important software that is needed by the project managers is the backup software. Regular backup of data will help the managers to retrieve sensitive information in case of an emergency situation like a technical failure. For this particular project, the backup storage is cloud storage and not any local server. Communication: Communication skill is the most important skill that helps the project manager and the project team members to share their perspectives with the other project team members like the operation manager, application programming manager and the financial manager. For this particular company, the chosen communication channels are emails and web conferencing. Project team members face difficulty in sharing their thoughts and ideas with one another. Regular meetings and group discussions will help to overcome the communication gap that is prevailing in this company. Diagramming: Flowcharts are used for presenting a diagrammatic representation of the IS implementation. Woolworths Limited should use proper diagramming software to improve the existing workflow and timing of the project. Microsoft Visio and OmniGraffle software are used by most of the companies for flowchart representation. PM platform: To design the project management task specifically, certain project management platform is needed. This is a collection of different tools that help to manage the project timing as well as scheduling. Project planning schedule WBS Task Name Duration Start Finish Predecessors 0 Schedule development 269 days Tue 11/14/17 Fri 11/23/18 1 Project initiation 27 days Tue 11/14/17 Wed 12/20/17 1.1 Understanding operational details of Woolworths Limited 3 days Tue 11/14/17 Thu 11/16/17 1.2 Adoption of Information System 4 days Fri 11/17/17 Wed 11/22/17 2 1.3 Feasibility study 5 days Thu 11/23/17 Wed 11/29/17 3 1.4 Understanding details of project management tools and technologies 12 days Thu 11/30/17 Fri 12/15/17 4 1.5 Risk management 3 days Mon 12/18/17 Wed 12/20/17 5 2 Project planning 62 days Thu 12/21/17 Fri 3/16/18 2.1 Project risk management plan development 10 days Thu 12/21/17 Wed 1/3/18 6 2.2 Analysing new products and service details 14 days Thu 1/4/18 Tue 1/23/18 8 2.3 Implementation of PERT chart 16 days Wed 1/24/18 Wed 2/14/18 9 2.4 Implementation of Gantt chart 12 days Thu 2/15/18 Fri 3/2/18 10 2.5 Contract with the cloud server 10 days Mon 3/5/18 Fri 3/16/18 11 3 Project execution 168 days Mon 3/19/18 Wed 11/7/18 3.1 Quality management plan development 48 days Mon 3/19/18 Wed 5/23/18 3.1.3 Change management policy consideration 14 days Mon 4/23/18 Thu 5/10/18 5,9,16 3.1.1 Time management implementation 15 days Mon 3/19/18 Fri 4/6/18 12 3.1.2 Cost management planning 10 days Mon 4/9/18 Fri 4/20/18 15,4,12 3.1.4 Procurement planning 9 days Fri 5/11/18 Wed 5/23/18 17 3.2 Field execution of ERP based Information System 69 days Thu 5/24/18 Tue 8/28/18 3.2.1 Development of project maintenance plan 10 days Thu 5/24/18 Wed 6/6/18 18 3.2.2 Project development 8 days Thu 6/7/18 Mon 6/18/18 20,17 3.2.3 Concept designing 6 days Tue 6/19/18 Tue 6/26/18 21 3.2.4 Hiring design engineer 9 days Wed 6/27/18 Mon 7/9/18 22 3.2.5 Approaches adoption for 10 days Tue 7/10/18 Mon 7/23/18 23,18 3.2.6 Protection or privacy process adoption 12 days Tue 7/24/18 Wed 8/8/18 24 3.2.7 Project leverage 14 days Thu 8/9/18 Tue 8/28/18 25 3.3 Final evaluation 51 days Wed 8/29/18 Wed 11/7/18 3.3.1 IS testing 10 days Wed 8/29/18 Tue 9/11/18 22,26 3.3.2 Unit testing 15 days Wed 9/12/18 Tue 10/2/18 28 3.3.3 Integrated testing 12 days Wed 10/3/18 Thu 10/18/18 29 3.3.4 Competency testing 14 days Fri 10/19/18 Wed 11/7/18 30 4 Project closure 12 days Thu 11/8/18 Fri 11/23/18 4.1 Stakeholders signoff 3 days Thu 11/8/18 Mon 11/12/18 31 4.2 Final documentation 4 days Tue 11/13/18 Fri 11/16/18 33 4.3 Post project evaluation 5 days Mon 11/19/18 Fri 11/23/18 34 Project resources Resource Name Type Initials Max. Units Std. Rate Ovt. Rate Cost/Use Accrue At Base Calendar Project manager Work P 100% $20.00/hr $15.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard Finance manager Work F 100% $18.00/hr $15.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard Application programming manager Work A 100% $18.00/hr $16.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard Information system manager Work I 100% $18.00/hr $15.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard HR manager Work H 100% $20.00/hr $12.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard operational manager Work O 100% $20.00/hr $16.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard Members of IS project team Work M 100% $10.00/hr $5.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard IS tester Work I 100% $15.00/hr $12.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard IS developer Work I 100% $15.00/hr $12.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard To implement Information System (IS) in Woolworths Limited, Australia, proper cost management approaches are needed to be made by the project manager and IT manager. Cost management plan is referred to as a budget control approach that helps the project head to predict impending expenditure for reducing the chances of over growing budget. Cost management plan helps the manager to identify the cost allotted for each of the resources to ensure that the expense to get approval before purchasing. It is necessary for the project manager to ensure that, the rate of project investment lower than the project outcome. On the other hand, if the project output is higher than the investment then it would lead the project towards failure o loss. After the implementation of accurate cost management plan, it would allow determining that the expense is adequate for the project and the rate of extra expense is reduced. The proposal for this particular project is completely dependent on the operational and functional features of the Information System. Organizations are adopting information systems for increasing their operational efficiency. Manual data management approaches are not feasible in case of large sets of data. To manage large sets of data, the company needs to adopt an automated system with online support and E-commerce business model. After analyzing the operational details of this organization, it can be said that the implementation of IS regarding ERP software is important. The reasons for which the ERP system has been proposed are as follows: ERP system will be able to streamline the processes and integrate information from various functional departments It will help to increase the competitive advantage It will increase the operational efficiency of the business It will help to enhance the collaborative power The cost required for implementing an ERP system will be less The scalability, mobility, flexibility and productivity will also be increased Conclusion From the overall discussion, it can be concluded that for managing a large set of data implementation of Information System is highly required. Information systems will be able to inter relate the sequential activities in an effective and proper manner. Based on the background of the project, it can be said that different tools and technologies play a significant role in enhancing the productivity of the company. For this particular project, the PERT chart and Gantt chart tools are used. The technologies that are used for this project include data backup, communication, and diagramming and PM platform. On the other hand, for reducing the project workload from the project team members, a project schedule, resource list and cost management details are also elaborated in this report. Woolworths Limited will be able to manage its costs and resources by adopting Information System. References Beringer, C., Jonas, D. and Kock, A., 2013. Behavior of internal stakeholders in project portfolio management and its impact on success.International Journal of Project Management,31(6), pp.830-846. Bresnen, M., 2016. Institutional development, divergence and change in the discipline of project management.International journal of project management,34(2), pp.328-338. Heldman, K., 2015.PMP project management professional exam deluxe study guide: updated for the 2015 Exam. John Wiley Sons. Hwang, B.G. and Ng, W.J., 2013. Project management knowledge and skills for green construction: Overcoming challenges.International Journal of Project Management,31(2), pp.272-284. Joslin, R. and Mller, R., 2015. Relationships between a project management methodology and project success in different project governance contexts.International Journal of Project Management,33(6), pp.1377-1392. Kerzner, H., 2013.Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley Sons. Kerzner, H., 2017.Project management metrics, KPIs, and dashboards: a guide to measuring and monitoring project performance. John Wiley Sons. Kucharska, W. and Kowalczyk, R., 2016. Trust, Collaborative Culture and Tacit Knowledge Sharing in Project Managementa Relationship Model. Larson, E.W. and Gray, C., 2013.Project Management: The Managerial Process with MS Project. McGraw-Hill. Leach, L.P., 2014.Critical chain project management. Artech House. Martinsuo, M., 2013. Project portfolio management in practice and in context.International Journal of Project Management,31(6), pp.794-803. Nicholas, J.M. and Steyn, H., 2017.Project management for engineering, business and technology. Taylor Francis. Phillips, J., 2013.PMP, Project Management Professional (Certification Study Guides). McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. Portny, S.E., 2017.Project management for dummies. John Wiley Sons. Schwalbe, K., 2015.Information technology project management. Cengage Learning. Serra, C.E.M. and Kunc, M., 2015. Benefits realisation management and its influence on project success and on the execution of business strategies.International Journal of Project Management,33(1), pp.53-66. Sharbatoghlie, A. and Sepehri, M., 2015. An Integrated Continuous Auditing Project Management Model (CAPM). In4th International Project Management Conference. Teller, J., Kock, A. and Gemnden, H.G., 2014. Risk management in project portfolios is more than managing project risks: A contingency perspective on risk management.Project Management Journal,45(4), pp.67-80. Todorovi?, M.L., Petrovi?, D.?., Mihi?, M.M., Obradovi?, V.L. and Bushuyev, S.D., 2015. Project success analysis framework: A knowledge-based approach in project management.International Journal of Project Management,33(4), pp.772-783. Verzuh, E., 2015.The fast forward MBA in project management. John Wiley Sons.